The invention of the restaurant

The invention of the restaurant in the 18^th and 19^th century

Paulo Seidl

Histoire et Culture de l’Alimentation

Université François Rabelais

Introduction

The objective of this short summary is, in light of a brief literature review, to analyze the grounds upon which the restaurant was invented in the late 18^th and early 19^th century in Paris. It also attempts to differentiate common lodges and other entrepreneurs that sold food, which had catered mostly to travelers since Ancient times, from the establishments as we know them today.

Development

The origins of the restaurant can be traced as far as the limits between pre-history and history. In places like Rome and China, lodges already offered travelers a bed, a stable for their horses, but above all, a hot restoring meal. Those businesses were often located by a major road, in central areas or near main intersections.

A few centuries later, taverns became common in more urban areas, but they served mostly drinks while offering entertainment. Cafés, a 17^th century invention, also became popular in large European cities, but did not serve any food, except for pastries and biscuits to accompany coffee. By that time, rôtisseurs and pâtissiers were also selling prepared foods, like pastries, roasts, or pâtés. Finally, there were the table d’hôtes (ordinaries in Britain), which were ‘all you can eat’ buffets with a fixed price, no printed menus, no separate tables or flexible time, regarded by many as a place with no finesse or charm.

But these businesses had little to do with restaurants as we know them today, which did not come to exist until the 1760’s in the city of Paris. At that time, it became common for convalescents to consume a very thick stock, consisting of vegetables but mostly meats, which were slowly simmered for many hours. It was believed that by breaking down proteins contained in meat, a sick person would get the necessary nourishment without the hassles of a long digestion.

It soon became fashionable for Parisians to frequent houses which prepared and served the restaurant, a restoring soup. Originally, a restaurant was not a place, but the name of a soup. By the end of the 18^th century, the so-called restaurant rooms, or houses which served restaurants, were already serving more solid food to its growing clientele.

It was not until shortly after the French Revolution, however, that restaurants took shape and proliferated. First, because with the end of absolutism, haut-cuisine became accessible to the bourgeoisie, since most of the aristocracy and nobility had been imprisoned or executed. Second, their chefs had lost their jobs and promptly became restaurateurs themselves, incrementing the growing number of restaurants existing in the city. Third, with the fall of Versailles, Paris doubled its population between 1800 and 1850, augmenting a public increasingly eager to visit a restaurant. Finally, with escalating demand, competition played an important role in the development of restaurants, boosting chefs’ creativity and resourcefulness. Between the late 18^th century and 1820, for instance, the number of restaurants increased from a mere one hundred to 3,000 houses.

It is worth mentioning that around that time, the work of prominent professionals also spurred the haut cuisine and consequently the restaurants that served it. In the sociological field, Brillat-Savarin proposes a breakthrough in food literature with The physiology of taste. In journalism, the figure of Grimod de la Reynière appears as the first gastronomic journalist. At last, Antonin Carême, the self-made pastry chef who was a street orphan in the cities of Paris during the French Revolution, sets the grounds of modern French cuisine.

By the beginning of the 19^th century, Paris was internationally known as the city of restaurants. The cradle of gastronomy became the target of artists, politicians, diplomats, and other professionals who fled to the city in order to visit its restaurants. Eating at a restaurant became a cultural program no less than visiting a museum or going to the opera. And it remained so until the mid 19^th century when restaurants started to spread outside Paris and France.

Conclusion

The early 18^th and late 19^th century witnessed the invention of restaurants as we know them today, no longer a place to restore one’s health or to be fed, but rather a locale for social gathering around food and drink. In short, the invention of restaurants reinforces the thought that eating is a sociological event, intrinsic in human relations and of utmost importance in promoting social binds by means of food.

References

Alexandre, P. and L’Aulnoit, B. 2012. Breve História da Gastronomia Francesa. Rio de Janeiro, Tinta Negra.

Ferguson, P. 2008. A cultural field in the making – Gastronomy in the 19th century France. In: David Englis, Debra Gimlin, and Chris Thorpe (eds). Food – Critical Concepts in Social Sciences. 114-154. New York, Routledge.

Gaudry, F. R. 2006. Mémoires du restaurant - Histoire illustrée d’une invention française. Genève, Aubanel.

Héron de Villefosse, R. 1956. Histoire et géographie gourmande de Paris. Paris, Édition de Paris.

Huetz de Lamps, A. and Pitte, J.R. 1990. Les restaurants dans le monde et à travers les âges. Grenoble, Éditions Glénat.

Pitte, J.R.1996. Naissance et expansion des restaurants. In: Jean-Louis Flandrin and Massimo Montanari (eds.), Histoire de l`alimentation, 767-778. Paris, Fayard.

Spang, R. 2000. The Invention of the Restaurant. Paris and Modern Gastronomic Culture. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.

Spang, R. 2001. Aux origines du restaurant parisien. In: À table au XIXe siècle. Dec 2001-March 2002. 172-181. Paris, ADAGP.

Spang, R. 2008. All the world’s a restaurant. In: David Englis, Debra Gimlin and Chris Thorpe (eds). Food – Critical Concepts in Social Sciences. 258-269. New York, Routledge.

Spang, R. And Muller, S. 2014. L'individu au menu: l'invention du restaurant à Paris au XVIIIe siècle. Ethnologie française, 44, 11-17.

Garval, M. 2004. L'invention du restaurant, Critique, 2004/6 685-686, 520-529. http://www.cairn.info/revue-critique-2004-6-page-520.htm.

Credit of the opening illustration - https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255-s01/students/Ruby-R-Littman/restaurants_revolution.html 

Churrasco - a Brazilian gastronomic event

Report on a Brazilian churrasco

The art to receive in Brazilian style

Paulo Seidl

November, 2015

Master en Histoire et Culture de l'Alimentation

Université François Rabelais

Introduction

   The objective of this article is to offer a succinct ethnographic observation of a typical Brazilian gastronomic festive event known as churrasco, or the Brazilian-style barbecue party. It attempts to provide, in the most metaphorical sense, food for thought for a perhaps deeper sociological analysis of food consumption in Brazil (1). Because of my current studies in France, comparisons with French customs at the table have been made.

When a party is given in the country, a number of possibilities arise in terms of how the reception is going to be held. Some of the choices include a cocktail, a dinner, or a luncheon. But perhaps nothing entertains more and nothing is more casual and more universal within our own boundaries than the churrasco.  Strictly for didactic purposes, the description below will be divided in topics.

Food

   There is an overall tacit agreement that the churrasco is potluck. That put, guests and hosts usually agree on what each will provide, but inevitably involves the bringing of drinks for the cooler (beer and soft drinks) and food for the grill. Commonly, the host will provide the ‘main meat’ and the guests will be concerned with the side dishes, starters or dessert.

While in France there is a clear distinction between the order of courses, from hors d’oeuvres to starters to the main course and dessert, in a churrasco those courses happen in a more haphazard way. Hors d’oeuvres will usually include ready to eat finger food, such as peanuts, olives or chips. Following, hot starters will usually include food that is quickly made on the grill, such as sausages, garlic bread, grilled vegetables or grilled cheese (hence a clear difference from a French meal, where cheese is served at the end).

   A few dishes rich in carbohydrates will always be on the table, to which guests help themselves whenever they please. These comprise white rice, boiled manioc with butter and or herbs, and manioc meal or farofa (roasted manioc meal with or without small pieces of meat). It is not unusual for all those items to be present on the table. Other side dishes may include beans, raw or cooked salads, and sauces.

   The ‘main meat’ (3) is normally the main course, hardly a course in itself. The reason for this is, as opposed to the regularity of French courses, guests may help themselves to starters even after they have started eating the main meat, creating a ‘gastronomic promiscuity’ when compared to the rigidity with which French courses are served.  Depending on the number of guests, more than one main meat may be served. They are usually beef cuts, but pork or chicken may also be served. Here a clear social distinction may be observed: there is substantial more social esteem in serving beef than chicken or pork. A barbecue with no beef may be regarded as a second class type of gastronomic event. Equally, a barbecue with prime beef cuts will give the host a more elevated social distinction.  

   Desserts do not have a place of honor in barbecue parties. If a birthday celebration is taking place, a cake will be served, but usually ice cream and fruit are the most common choices for dessert. Coffee will inevitably be prepared, and in the south of the country a bowl of mate (chimarrão) will pass hand to hand.

Tasks

   The making of the fire and the grilling of the meats are usually the duties of the (male) host (2).  This includes  the mise en place of the meat, which is exclusively marinated in rock salt, the keeping of the fire, and the turning of the meats, whether they are placed on the grill or put through spears, which are hung horizontally over the fire. Guests may help in the process, but the host is responsible for the overall cooking.  In the event that the host does not master the skills of the fire, a guest may be invited to handle it, or the service may be outsourced to a paid professional in larger events.

The tasks of the hostess usually include the preparation of the side dishes and the setting of the table, which involves constant trips to the interior of the house, considering that the party will inevitably take place outdoors. The table is usually set in American style, with plates, glasses, and napkins piled up and tableware gathered in a small basket. Paper cups and plates are not usually accepted, except in very large events. With the exception of napkins, the use of disposable utensils may be frowned upon.  A table cloth must always be used.

    If there is no cooler in the meal area, more trips to the inside of the residence will be necessary, and every member of the party will take turns to fetch a cold beer. On a side note, it is important to keep in mind that Brazilians drink their beers very cold, pilsner and lager being the preferred types, so it must always be refrigerated. The fetcher of the beer must also verify that no beer in the freezer is getting to the point of freezing. The fetcher should also rearrange the beer so that it will always be served in the right temperature. This is extremely important in Brazilian culture: serving beer at the right temperature is an intrinsic part of the art of well receiving.

   Doing the cleaning at the end of the party, which may last several hours, will depend on the level of intimacy that the host and the guests share. Naturally, the closer they are, the more likely solidarity will occur.

During the meal – conversation topics and other comments

   It is well worth noticing that churrascos are a social gathering and will unavoidably include a large party and a number of guests. It is rather unusual for a family to make a churrasco only for themselves.

   As mentioned before, the meal may last several hours, from early afternoon to sometimes early evening. The conversation topics will vary, but will likely include politics, soccer, current affairs, and social issues. As participants go on drinking alcohol, discussions may tend to get heated.

Unlike the French, Brazilians will get up several times from the table for a variety of reasons, either to have a smoke or a splash in the pool if there is one. Hosts and guests take turn to fetch items from the indoors kitchen.

   The locale of the meal is usually a covered but open area where a fixed structure is set up with a grill and a chimney. It is ordinary for a family to have this type of structure built in the backyard of their residence, which has the name of churrasqueira. Apartment buildings may have a common area either on the ground floor or on the penthouse, which must be reserved in advance. Low income families who cannot afford or do not have space for a churrasqueira  will improvise one with most varied creativity, such as a truck wheel with a grill on a top, a temporary structure with loose bricks, or a cut barrel with iron legs (see pictures in Annex I).

Conclusion

   It may be said that the French and the Brazilian share the spirit of conviviality around a table with a variety of quality food. Equally, they enjoy receiving and doors are often open to host parties where a substantial amount of food and drink is consumed along a period that may last several hours.

However, the order in which courses are served are different in the two cultures. While in France rigidity in the sequence of courses is observed, in Brazil courses go back and forth from the grill to the table and side dishes are available throughout the meal. Brazilians do not seem to talk about food while eating, for they are more likely to discuss a variety of topics. The French will be seated from the beginning to the end of the meal, except for the person doing the serving, whereas Brazilians will be more likely to get up from the table a number of times.

(1)   For a sociological view on churrascos, see Maciel, M. (2008). Churrasco à Gaúcha. In   Montebello, N. and Collaço, J. (Eds). Gastronomia: cortes & recortes volume II (pp. 97-118). Editora Senac, Brasilia.

(2)    The term ‘main meat’ is my creation. Although the concept is well established, there is actually no word or phrase to describe it. 

(3)    For a description on the male role in roasting meats, see Perlès, C. (1996). Les strategies alimentaires dans les temps pré-historique. In Flandrin, J. and Montanari, M. Histoire de l’alimentation (pp 54-67). Paris: Fayard. 

Annex I – Pictures

Churrasqueira of an upper-middle class family

In http://decoracaodecasa.com.br/fotos-de-varandas-com-churrasqueiras/

Improvised churrasqueira of a low-income church

http://www.luteranaic.com/2013/09/lelut-e-criada-na-comunidade-luterana.html